What Kind of Art Form Was Introduced in Mughal Period

South Asian painting in manuscript miniatures from the Mughal flow

Mughal painting is a particular fashion of South Asian, particularly North Indian (more specifically, modern 24-hour interval India and Pakistan), painting confined to miniatures either as book illustrations or as single works to be kept in albums (muraqqa). It emerged from Persian miniature painting (itself partly of Chinese origin) and adult in the court of the Mughal Empire of the 16th to 18th centuries. Battles, legendary stories, hunting scenes, wildlife, royal life, mythology, as well as other subjects accept all been often depicted in paintings.^[one]

The Mughal emperors were Muslims and they are credited with consolidating Islam in South asia, and spreading Muslim (and peculiarly Western farsi) arts and civilization as well equally the faith.^[ii]

Mughal painting immediately took a much greater interest in realistic portraiture than was typical of Western farsi miniatures. Animals and plants were the primary subject area of many miniatures for albums, and were more realistically depicted. Although many classic works of Farsi literature continued to be illustrated, equally well as Indian works, the taste of the Mughal emperors for writing memoirs or diaries, begun by Babur, provided some of the about lavishly decorated texts, such equally the Padshahnama genre of official histories. Subjects are rich in variety and include portraits, events and scenes from court life, wild life and hunting scenes, and illustrations of battles. The Persian tradition of richly decorated borders framing the central prototype (mostly trimmed in the images shown here) was continued, as was a modified form of the Persian convention of an elevated viewpoint.

The Emperor Shah Jahan standing on a globe, with a halo and European-style putti, c. 1618–19 to 1629.

The Mughal painting style later spread to other Indian courts, both Muslim and Hindu, and later on Sikh, and was frequently used to depict Hindu subjects. This was by and large in northern India. It developed many regional styles in these courts, tending to go bolder but less refined. These are oftentimes described equally "postal service-Mughal", "sub-Mughal" or "provincial Mughal". The mingling of strange Persian and indigenous Indian elements was a continuation of the patronage of other aspects of foreign civilisation every bit initiated by the before Turko-Afghan Delhi Sultanate, and the introduction of it into the subcontinent past various Central Asian Turkish dynasties, such every bit the Ghaznavids.

Subjects [edit]

Portraits [edit]

From fairly early the Mughal style made a stiff characteristic of realistic portraiture, normally in profile, and influenced by Western prints, which were available at the Mughal court. This had never been a characteristic of either Persian miniature or earlier Indian painting. The pose, rarely varied in portraits, was to have the caput in strict profile, but the rest of the trunk half turned towards the viewer. For a long time portraits were always of men, ofttimes accompanied by generalized female servants or concubines; just there is scholarly debate about the representation of female courtroom members in portraiture. Some scholars merits there are no known extant likenesses of figures like Jahanara Begum and Mumtaz Mahal, and others aspect miniatures, for example from the Dara Shikoh album or the Freer Gallery of Art mirror portrait, to these famous noblewomen.^{[three] [4] [5]} The single idealized figure of the Riza Abbasi type was less popular, simply fully painted scenes of lovers in a palace setting became popular later. Drawings of genre scenes, peculiarly showing holy men, whether Muslim or Hindu, were also popular.

Akbar had an album, at present dispersed, consisting entirely of portraits of figures at his enormous court which had a practical purpose; according to chroniclers he used to consult information technology when discussing appointments and the like with his advisors, plainly to jog his memory of who the people being discussed were. Many of them, similar medieval European images of saints, carried objects associated with them to assistance identification, but otherwise the figures stand up on a plain groundwork.^[half-dozen] At that place are a number of fine portraits of Akbar, but information technology was nether his successors Jahangir and Shah Jahan that the portrait of the ruler became firmly established as a leading bailiwick in Indian miniature painting, which was to spread to both Muslim and Hindu princely courts beyond Republic of india.^[7]

From the 17th century equestrian portraits, mostly of rulers, became another popular borrowing from the Due west.^[eight] Another new type of image showed the Jharokha Darshan (literally "balcony view/worship"), or public display of the emperor to the courtroom, or the public, which became a daily ceremonial under Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan, before being stopped as united nations-Islamic past Aurangzeb. In these scenes, the emperor is shown at top on a balustrade or at a window, with a oversupply of courtiers beneath, sometimes including many portraits. Like the increasingly large halos these emperors were given in unmarried portraits, the iconography reflects the aspiration of the afterward Mughals to project an image as the representative of Allah on earth, or even as having a quasi-divine status themselves.^{[9] [10]} Other images prove the enthroned emperor having meetings, receiving visitors, or in durbar, or formal council. These and majestic portraits incorporated in hunting scenes became highly pop types in later Rajput painting and other post-Mughal styles.

Animals and plants [edit]

Nilgai past Ustad Mansur (fl. 1590–1624), who specialized in birds and animal studies for albums.

Some other pop bailiwick area was realistic studies of animals and plants, mostly flowers; the text of the Baburnama includes a number of descriptions of such subjects, which were illustrated in the copies fabricated for Akbar. These subjects likewise had specialist artists, including Ustad Mansur. Milo C. Beach argues that "Mughal naturalism has been greatly overstressed. Early beast imagery consists of variations on a theme, rather than new, innovative observations". He sees considerable borrowings from Chinese creature paintings on paper, which seem not to have been highly valued past Chinese collectors, and so reached India.^[11]

Illustrated books [edit]

In the formative period of the way, under Akbar, the imperial workshop produced a number of heavily illustrated copies of established books in Persian. One of the commencement, probably from the 1550s and now generally in the Cleveland Museum of Art, was a Tutinama with some 250 rather simple and rather small miniatures, most with simply a few figures. In contrast the Hamzanama Akbar deputed had unusually big pages, of densely woven cotton rather than the usual newspaper, and the images were very often crowded with figures. The piece of work was "a continuous serial of romantic interludes, threatening events, narrow escapes, and violent acts", supposedly telling the life of an uncle of Muhammad.^[12] Akbar'south manuscript had a remarkable total of some 1400 miniatures, i on every opening, with the relevant text written on the back of the page, presumably to be read to the emperor as he looked at each image. This colossal project took most of the 1560s, and probably beyond. These and a few other early works saw a fairly unified Mughal workshop way emerge by around 1580.

Other large projects included biographies or memoirs of the Mughal dynasty. Babur, its founder, had written classic memoirs, which his grandson Akbar had translated into Persian, equally the Baburnama (1589), and then produced in four lavishly illustrated copies, with up to 183 miniatures each. The Akbarnama was Akbar's own commissioned biography or chronicle, produced in many versions, and the tradition continued with Jahangir's autobiography Tuzk-e-Jahangiri (or Jahangirnama) and a celebratory biography of Shah Jahan, called the Padshahnama, which brought the era of the large illustrated royal biography to an stop, around 1650. Akbar commissioned a copy of the Zafarnama, a biography of his distant ancestor Timur, just though he had his aunt write a biography of his father Humayun, no illustrated manuscript survives.

Volumes of the classics of Western farsi poetry usually had rather fewer miniatures, often around xx, but often these were of the highest quality. Akbar also had the Hindu epic poems translated into Western farsi, and produced in illustrated versions. Four are known of the Razmnama, a Mahabharata in Western farsi, from betwixt 1585 and c. 1617. Akbar had at least one copy of the Western farsi version of the Ramayana.

Origins [edit]

Mughal court painting, as opposed to looser variants of the Mughal style produced in regional courts and cities, drew little from ethnic non-Muslim traditions of painting. These were Hindu and Jain, and before Buddhist, and well-nigh entirely religious. They existed mainly in relatively small illustrations to texts, simply also mural paintings, and paintings in folk styles on cloth, in particular ones on scrolls made to be displayed past popular singers or reciters of the Hindu epics and other stories, performed past travelling specialists; very few early examples of these final survive. A brilliant Kashmiri tradition of mural paintings flourished between the 9th and 17th centuries, as seen in the murals of Alchi Monastery or Tsaparang: a number of Kashimiri painters were employed by Akbar and some influence of their fine art can be seen in various Mughal works, such as the Hamzanama.^[13]

In dissimilarity Mughal painting was "almost entirely secular",^[fourteen] although religious figures were sometimes portrayed. Realism, peculiarly in portraits of both people and animals, became a key aim, far more in Persian painting, let alone the Indian traditions.^[15] There was already a Muslim tradition of miniature painting nether the Turko-Afghan Sultanate of Delhi which the Mughals overthrew, and like the Mughals, and the very primeval of Central Asian invaders into the subcontinent, patronized foreign civilization. These paintings were painted on loose-leaf paper, and were ordinarily placed between decorated wooden covers.^[16] Although the first surviving manuscripts are from Mandu in the years either side of 1500, there were very likely before ones which are either lost, or possibly now attributed to southern Persia, equally later manuscripts can be difficult to distinguish from these by style alone, and some remain the field of study of debate among specialists.^[17] Past the fourth dimension of the Mughal invasion, the tradition had abandoned the loftier viewpoint typical of the Western farsi style, and adopted a more realistic style for animals and plants.^[eighteen]

No miniatures survive from the reign of the founder of the dynasty, Babur, nor does he mention commissioning any in his memoirs, the Baburnama.^[xix] Copies of this were illustrated by his descendents, Akbar in particular, with many portraits of the many new animals Babur encountered when he invaded India, which are carefully described.^[twenty] Withal some surviving united nations-illustrated manuscripts may accept been commissioned by him, and he comments on the style of some famous past Western farsi masters. Some older illustrated manuscripts have his seal on them; the Mughals came from a long line stretching back to Timur and were fully assimilated into Persianate culture, and expected to patronize literature and the arts.

The manner of the Mughal school adult within the regal atelier. Knowledge was primarily transmitted through familial and apprenticeship relationships, and the organization of joint manuscript production which brought multiple artists together for single works.^[21] In some cases, senior artists would draw the illustrations in outline, and more junior ones would commonly employ the colours, especially for background areas.^[22] Where no artist names are inscribed, it is very difficult to trace Majestic Mughal paintings dorsum to specific artists.^[23]

Development [edit]

Princes of the House of Timur, attributed to the Persian Abd equally-Samad, c. 1550–1555, with additions in the next century under Jahangir.^[24]

After a tentative start under Humayun, the great period of Mughal painting was during the next three reigns, of Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan, which covered simply over a century between them.

Humayun (1530–1540 and 1555–1556) [edit]

Emperor Jahangir weighs Prince Khurram by Manohar Das, 1610–fifteen, from Jahangir'due south own copy of the Tuzk-e-Jahangiri. The names of the master figures are noted on their wearing apparel, and the artist shown at bottom. British Museum

When the 2d Mughal emperor, Humayun was in exile in Tabriz in the Safavid courtroom of Shah Tahmasp I of Persia, he was exposed to Persian miniature painting, and deputed at to the lowest degree one piece of work at that place (or in Kabul), an unusually large painting on textile of Princes of the Firm of Timur, now in the British Museum. Originally a grouping portrait with his sons, in the adjacent century Jahangir had it added to brand it a dynastic group including expressionless ancestors.^[25] When Humayun returned to Republic of india, he brought two accomplished Western farsi artists Abd al-Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali with him. His usurping brother Kamran Mirza had maintained a workshop in Kabul, which Humayan perhaps took over into his own. Humayan's major known commission was a Khamsa of Nizami with 36 illuminated pages, in which the different styles of the various artists are mostly nevertheless apparent.^[26] Apart from the London painting, he also commissioned at least two miniatures showing himself with family members,^[27] a blazon of discipline that was rare in Persia but common amidst the Mughals.^[28]

Akbar (r. 1556–1605) [edit]

During the reign of Humayun'south son Akbar (r. 1556–1605), the imperial court, apart from being the heart of administrative authority to manage and rule the vast Mughal empire, also emerged as a centre of cultural excellence. Akbar inherited and expanded his begetter'due south library and atelier of courtroom painters, and paid close personal attending to its output. He had studied painting in his youth under Abd equally-Samad, though it is not clear how far these studies went.^[29]

Between 1560 and 1566 the Tutinama ("Tales of a Parrot"), now in the Cleveland Museum of Art was illustrated, showing "the stylistic components of the majestic Mughal way at a determinative phase".^[xxx] Amid other manuscripts, between 1562 and 1577 the atelier worked on an illustrated manuscript of the Hamzanama consisting of 1,400 cotton folios, unusually large at 69 cm x 54 cm (approx. 27 x 20 inches) in size. This huge project "served as a means of moulding the disparate styles of his artists, from Iran and from different parts of India, into ane unified style". By the stop, the style reached maturity, and "the flat and decorative compositions of Persian painting have been transformed by creating a conceivable space in which characters painted in the round can perform".^[31]

Sa'di'southward masterpiece The Gulistan was produced at Fatehpur Sikri in 1582, a Darab Nama around 1585; the Khamsa of Nizami (British Library, Or. 12208) followed in the 1590s and Jami's Baharistan around 1595 in Lahore. Every bit Mughal-derived painting spread to Hindu courts the texts illustrated included the Hindu epics including the Ramayana and the Mahabharata; themes with animal fables; individual portraits; and paintings on scores of unlike themes. Mughal fashion during this flow continued to refine itself with elements of realism and naturalism coming to the fore. Between 1570–1585, Akbar hired over one hundred painters to practice Mughal style painting.^[32]

Akbar's rule established a celebratory theme among the Mughal Empire. In this new menstruum, Akbar persuaded artist to focus on showing off spectacles and including grand symbols like elephants in their piece of work to create the sense of a prospering empire. Along with this new mindset, Akbar also encouraged his people to write down and detect a way to tape what they remembered from before times to ensure that others would be able to remember the greatness of the Mughal empire. ^{[33] [34]}

Jahangir (1605–1625) [edit]

Jahangir had an artistic inclination and during his reign Mughal painting adult further. Brushwork became finer and the colours lighter. Jahangir was also deeply influenced by European painting. During his reign he came into directly contact with the English Crown and was sent gifts of oil paintings, which included portraits of the Male monarch and Queen. He encouraged his purple atelier to have upwards the single point perspective favoured by European artists, different the flattened multi-layered fashion used in traditional miniatures. He peculiarly encouraged paintings depicting events of his own life, individual portraits, and studies of birds, flowers and animals. The Tuzk-e-Jahangiri (or Jahangirnama), written during his lifetime, which is an autobiographical account of Jahangir's reign, has several paintings, including some unusual subjects such every bit the matrimony of a saint with a tigress, and fights between spiders.^{[ citation needed ]} Mughal paintings made during Jahangir's reign connected the trend of Naturalism and were influenced by the resurgence of Persian styles and subjects over more traditional Hindu.^[35]

Shah Jahan (1628–1659) [edit]

During the reign of Shah Jahan (1628–58), Mughal paintings continued to develop, but court paintings became more rigid and formal. The illustrations from the "Padshanama" (chronicle of the Rex of the world), one of the finest Islamic manuscripts from the Royal Collection, at Windsor, were painted during the reign of Shah Jahan. Written in Western farsi on paper that is flecked with gold, has exquisitely rendered paintings. The "Padshahnama" has portraits of the courtiers and servants of the King painted with great item and individuality. In keeping with the strict formality at court, however the portraits of the Male monarch and important nobles was rendered in strict contour, whereas servants and common people, depicted with individual features accept been portrayed in the 3-quarter view or the frontal view.

Themes including musical parties; lovers, sometimes in intimate positions, on terraces and gardens; and ascetics gathered around a burn down, abound in the Mughal paintings of this catamenia.^{[36] [ citation needed ]} Even though this catamenia was titled the virtually prosperous, artists during this time were expected to adhere to representing life in courtroom as organized and unified. For this reason, most art created nether his rule focused mainly on the emperor and aided in establishing his authority. The purpose of this art was to leave behind an image of what the Mughal'south believed to be the ideal ruler and state.^[37]

Afterwards paintings [edit]

A durbar scene with the newly crowned Emperor Aurangzeb in his golden throne. Though he did not encourage Mughal painting, some of the best piece of work was done during his reign.

Aurangzeb (1658–1707) was never an enthusiastic patron of painting, largely for religious reasons , and took a turn away from the pomp and ceremonial of the courtroom around 1668, after which he probably commissioned no more paintings. Afterwards 1681 he moved to the Deccan to pursue his tiresome conquest of the Deccan Sultanates, never returning to alive in the north.^[38]

Mughal paintings continued to survive, but the decline had set in. Some sources all the same note that a few of the best Mughal paintings were made for Aurangzeb, speculating that they believed that he was nigh to close the workshops and thus exceeded themselves in his behalf.^[39] At that place was a cursory revival during the reign of Muhammad Shah 'Rangeela' (1719–48), simply by the time of Shah Alam II (1759–1806), the art of Mughal painting had lost its glory. By that time, other schools of Indian painting had adult, including, in the imperial courts of the Rajput kingdoms of Rajputana, Rajput painting and in the cities ruled past the British East India Company, the Visitor way under Western influence. Late Mughal style oftentimes shows increased utilize of perspective and recession nether Western influence.

Many museums have collections, with that of the Victoria and Albert Museum in London peculiarly large.^[40]

Artists [edit]

The Persian principal artists Abd al-Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali, who had accompanied Humayun to Bharat in the 16th century, were in accuse of the imperial atelier during the formative stages of Mughal painting. Many artists worked on large commissions, the bulk of them obviously Hindu, to judge by the names recorded. Mughal painting generally involved a grouping of artists, one (more often than not the about senior) to determine and outline the composition, the second to actually pigment, and mayhap a 3rd who specialized in portraiture, executing individual faces.^[41]

This was particularly the case with the large historical book projects that dominated product during Akbar's reign, the Tutinama, Baburnama, Hamzanama, Razmnama, and Akbarnama. For manuscripts of Persian poetry there was a different way of working, with the best masters plainly expected to produce exquisitely finished miniatures all or largely their own work.^[42] An influence on the evolution of style during Akbar's reign was Kesu Das, who understood and adult "European techniques of rendering space and book".^[43]

Conveniently for modernistic scholars, Akbar liked to see the names of the artists written below each miniature. Assay of manuscripts shows that private miniatures were assigned to many painters. For example, the incomplete Razmnama in the British Library contains 24 miniatures, with 21 different names, though this may be an peculiarly large number.^[44]

Other important painters nether Akbar and Jahangir were:^[45]

• Farrukh Beg (c. 1545– c. 1615), another Western farsi import, in Bharat from 1585–1590, perhaps then in Bijapur, returning north from around 1605 to his death.
• Daswanth, a Hindu, d. 1584, who worked specially on Akbar'south Razmnama, the Mahabharata in Persian
• Basawan a Hindu active c. 1580–1600, whose son Manohar Das was active c. 1582–1624
• Govardhan, active c. 1596 to 1640, another Hindu, especially good at portraits. His begetter Bhavani Das,^[37] had been a painter in the majestic workshop.
• Ustad Mansur (flourished 1590–1624) a specialist in animals and plants
• Abu al-Hasan (1589 – c. 1630), perchance the son of Reza Abbasi, the leading Persian painter of his generation.
• Bichitr
• Bishandas, a Hindu specialist in portraits
• Mushfiq an early example of an artist who seems never to accept worked in the royal atelier, but for other clients.
• Miskin

Others: Nanha, Daulat, Payag, Abd al-Rahim, Amal-east Hashim, Keshavdas, and Mah Muhammad.

The sub-purple school of Mughal painting included artists such every bit Mushfiq, Kamal, and Fazl. During the offset half of the 18th century, many Mughal-trained artists left the royal workshop to work at Rajput courts. These include artists such equally Bhawanidas and his son Dalchand.

Mughal way today [edit]

Mughal-style miniature paintings are still being created today by a small number of artists in Lahore full-bodied mainly in the National Higher of Arts. Although many of these miniatures are skilful copies of the originals, some artists have produced gimmicky works using classic methods with, at times, remarkable artistic effect.

The skills needed to produce these modern versions of Mughal miniatures are still passed on from generation to generation, although many artisans too utilize dozens of workers, often painting nether trying working conditions, to produce works sold under the signature of their modern masters.

Gallery [edit]

• 

  Portrait of Akbar

• 

• 

  Shah Jahan on a terrace holding a pendant set with his portrait

• 

• 

  The Submission of the rebel brothers Ali Quli and Bahadur Khan. Akbarnama, 1590–95^[46]

• 

  Akbar riding the elephant Hawa'I pursuing some other elephant across a collapsing bridge of boats (right), 1561

• 

  Pir Muhammad Drowns While Crossing the Narbada-Akbarnama, 1562

• 

  Alexander is Lowered into the Ocean, from a Khamsa (Quintet) of Amir Khusrau Dihlavi c. 1597–98, attributed to Mukanda.^[47]

• 

  Mughal Prince visits a Holy Man

• 

  A Mughal prince and ladies in a garden, 18th century

• 

  A young adult female playing a Veena to a parakeet, a symbol of her absent lover. 18th-century painting in the provincial Mughal style of Bengal

• 

  Ascetic Seated on Leopard's Pare, late 18th century

• 

  Mughal Ganjifa playing cards, early 19th century, with miniature paintings – courtesy of the Wovensouls drove

• 

  The figural decoration of this case shows a strong relationship to paintings of the 17th century.^[49]

See also [edit]

• Arabic miniature
• Indian painting
• Madhubani painting
• Ottoman miniature
• Rajput painting
• Tanjore painting
• Western painting
• Persian miniature
• Islamic miniature

Notes [edit]

1. ^ Ali, Azmat; Sahni, Janmejay; Sharma, Mohit; Sharma, Prajjwal; Goel, Dr Priya (2019-11-12). IAS Mains Paper 1 Indian Heritage & Civilization History & Geography of the world & Guild 2020. Arihant Publications Republic of india limited. ISBN978-93-241-9210-3.
2. ^ "BBC - Religions - Islam: Mughal Empire (1500s, 1600s)". www.bbc.co.uk . Retrieved 2019-01-01 .
3. ^ Crill and Jariwala, 23-30
4. ^ Losty, J.P.; Roy, Malini (2012). Mughal India: Fine art, Culture and Empire Manuscripts and Paintings in the British Library. London: The British Library. pp. 132–133. ISBN9780712358705.
5. ^ Abid. Reign of Shah Jahan, portrait by Abid dated 1628; assembled late 17th century. Mirror Case With Portrait of Mumtaz Mahal. Freer Gallery of Art. F2005.4 [1]
6. ^ Crill and Jariwala, 66
7. ^ Crill and Jariwala, 27–39, and catalogue entries
8. ^ Crill and Jariwala, 68
9. ^ Hansen, Waldemar, The Peacock Throne: The Drama of Mogul Republic of india, 102, 1986, Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978-81-208-0225-4
10. ^ Kaur, Manpreet (February 2015). "Romancing The Jharokha: From Being A Source Of Ventilation And Light To The Divine Conception" (PDF). International Journal of Informative & Futuristic Research.
11. ^ Beach, 32–37, 37 quoted
12. ^ Beach, 61
13. ^ Chaitanya, Krishna (1976). A History of Indian Painting. Abhinav Publications. pp. 6–7.
14. ^ Harle, 372
15. ^ Harle, 372
16. ^ Seyller, John (1999). "Workshop and Patron in Mughal India: The Freer Rāmāyaṇa and Other Illustrated Manuscripts of 'Abd al-Raḥīm". Artibus Asiae. Supplementum. 42: 3–344. ISSN 1423-0526. JSTOR 1522711.
17. ^ Titley, 161–166
18. ^ Titley, 161
19. ^ Losty, 12
20. ^ Titley, 187
21. ^ Sarafan, Greg (half-dozen November 2011). "Artistic Stylistic Manual in the Imperial Mughal Atelier". Sensible Reason.
22. ^ Seyller, John (1999). "Workshop and Patron in Mughal Bharat: The Freer Rāmāyaṇa and Other Illustrated Manuscripts of 'Abd al-Raḥīm". Artibus Asiae. Supplementum. 42: 3–344. ISSN 1423-0526. JSTOR 1522711.
23. ^ Seyller, John (1999). "Workshop and Patron in Mughal India: The Freer Rāmāyaṇa and Other Illustrated Manuscripts of 'Abd al-Raḥīm". Artibus Asiae. Supplementum. 42: 3–344. ISSN 1423-0526. JSTOR 1522711.
24. ^ Crill and Jariwala, 50
25. ^ Crill and Jariwala, 50
26. ^ Grove
27. ^ Grove
28. ^ Embankment, 58
29. ^ Beach, 49
30. ^ Grove
31. ^ Losty, 15
32. ^ Eastman
33. ^ Ebba Koch, Visual Strategies of Purple Self-Representation:The Windsor Pādshāhnāma Revisited
34. ^ Koch, Ebba. "Visual Strategies of Imperial Cocky-Representation:The Windsor Pādshāhnāma Revisited". Art Bulletin.
35. ^ Seyller, John (1999). "Workshop and Patron in Mughal Republic of india: The Freer Rāmāyaṇa and Other Illustrated Manuscripts of 'Abd al-Raḥīm". Artibus Asiae. Supplementum. 42: three–344. ISSN 1423-0526. JSTOR 1522711.
36. ^ Britannica
37. ^ ^{a b} Singh, Kavita (xiii June 2021). "In a resplendent portrait of a Mughal emperor, subtle clues about a dark autumn". Scroll.in . Retrieved 2021-06-13 . {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
38. ^ Losty, 147, 149
39. ^ Commentary past Stuart Cary Welch
40. ^ "5&A · Almost united states of america". Victoria and Albert Museum . Retrieved 2022-02-17 .
41. ^ Losty, 31; Crill and Jariwala, 27; Britannica
42. ^ Losty, 31
43. ^ Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila South. (2009). The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. p. 380. ISBN978-0-19-530991-1.
44. ^ "Razmnamah: the Persian Mahabharata", British Library Asian and African studies blog, by Ursula Sims-Williams, April 2016 - see table virtually bottom
45. ^ Diamind, Maurice. "Mughal Painting Under Akbar the Slap-up" Metropolitan Museum of Fine art
46. ^ Basawan & Chitra (1590–1595). "The Submission of the rebel brothers Ali Quli and Bahadur Khan-Akbarnama". Akbarnama.
47. ^ "Alexander is Lowered into the Body of water". www.metmuseum.org . Retrieved 2018-12-xiv .
48. ^ Smart, Ellen (1999). "The Death of Ināyat Khān by the Mughal Artist Bālchand". Artibus Asiae. Supplementum. 58: 273–279. ISSN 1423-0526. JSTOR 3250020.
49. ^ "Box with Scenes of an Emperor Receiving Gifts, early on to mid-17th century". www.metmuseum.org . Retrieved 2018-12-17 .

References [edit]

• Embankment, Milo Cleveland, Early Mughal painting, Harvard Academy Press, 1987, ISBN 0-674-22185-0, ISBN 978-0-674-22185-7, google books
• Crill, Rosemary, and Jariwala, Kapil. The Indian Portrait, 1560–1860, National Portrait Gallery, London, 2010, ISBN 9781855144095
• Eastman, Alvan C. "Mughal painting." College Art Association . three.ii (1993): 36. Web. 30 Sep. 2013.
• "Grove", Oxford Art Online, "Indian sub., §VI, 4(i): Mughal ptg styles, 16th–19th centuries", restricted access.
• Harle, J.C., The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale Academy Press Pelican History of Art, ISBN 0300062176
• Kossak, Steven. (1997). Indian court painting, 16th-19th century. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0870997831
• Losty, J. P. Roy, Malini (eds), Mughal India: Art, Culture and Empire, 2013, British Library, ISBN 0712358706, 9780712358705
• "Mughal Painting." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Bookish Online Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013.Web. 30 Sep 2013.
• Titley, Norah M., Farsi Miniature Painting, and its Influence on the Art of Turkey and India, 1983, University of Texas Press, 0292764847
• Sarafan, Greg, "Creative Stylistic Manual in the Royal Mughal Atelier", Sensible Reason, LLC, 2007, SensibleReason.com

Further reading [edit]

• Painting for the Mughal Emperor (The Art of the Book 1560-1660) by Susan Stronge (ISBN 0-8109-6596-8)
• Fiction in Mughal Miniature Painting by Prof. P. C. Jain and Dr. Daljeet
• Painting the Mughal Experience by Som Prakash Verma, 2005 (ISBN 0-19-566756-5)
• Chitra, Die Tradition der Miniaturmalerei in Rajasthan by K.D. Christof & Renate Haass, 1999 (ISBN 978-3-89754-231-0)
• Welch, Stuart Cary; et al. (1987). The Emperors' album: images of Mughal India . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Fine art. ISBN978-0870994999.
• Welch, Stuart Cary (1985). India: art and civilization, 1300-1900 . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Fine art. ISBN9780944142134.
• Creative Stylistic Transmission in the Regal Mughal Atelier by Greg Sarafan, Esq., 2007

External links [edit]

• Indian Courtroom Painting, 16th-19th Century from the Metropolitan Museum of Art
• National Museum, Delhi - Mughal paintings
• San Diego Museum of Art
• Collection: Art of the Mughal Empire from the University of Michigan Museum of Art

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_painting

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